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176 Years of Direct Democracy: Switzerland as Evidence for Citizen-Led Governance at National Scale

A. C. Applebee, L. N. Combe · 2026

Abstract

The claim that direct democracy cannot function at national scale has been empirically contradicted for 178 years. Since adopting its federal constitution in 1848 and progressively expanding citizen-initiated lawmaking through the optional referendum (1874) and the popular initiative (1891), Switzerland has conducted over 700 national referendums on matters ranging from fiscal policy and immigration to nuclear energy and constitutional rights. This paper examines the Swiss direct democratic system as a longitudinal natural experiment in citizen-led governance, analysing its institutional mechanisms, policy outcomes, and transferability. Drawing on referendum statistics from the Swiss Federal Statistical Office, OECD comparative data, and the academic literature on participatory governance, the paper demonstrates that Switzerland consistently outperforms comparable representative democracies on key indicators including economic performance (GDP per capita, innovation, unemployment), fiscal responsibility (debt-to-GDP ratio of approximately 30% versus the eurozone average of 97%), citizen trust in government (62% versus the OECD average of 39%), and life satisfaction.

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